Phagocytic Cells And The Reticuloendothelial System.
Particulate matter that finds its way into the
blood or tissues is rapidly removed
by cells, and the property of taking up dyes, colloids, etc. was used by
anatomists to define a body-wide system of phagocytic cells known as the
‘reticuloendothelial system’ (RES), consisting of the vascular
endothelium and reticular tissue cells (top right), and – supposedly descended
from these – various types of macrophages with routine functions that included
clearing up the body’s own debris and killing and digesting bacteria.
However, more modern work has shown
a fundamental distinction between those phagocytic cells derived from the bone
marrow (blue in figure) and endothelial and reticular cells formed locally from
the tissues themselves (yellow). Ironically, neither reticular nor endothelial
cells are outstandingly phagocytic. Their function is partly structural, in
maintaining the integrity of the lymphoid tissue and blood vessels,
respectively. However, there is increasing awareness that both cell types have an equally important role as
‘signposts’, regulating the migration of
haemopoietic cells from
blood into the
tissues and through the various
subcompartments of lymphoid tissue.
In contrast, the major phagocytic
tissue cell is the macrophage, and it is therefore more usual today to speak of
the ‘mononuclear phagocytic system’ (MPS). The cells of the MPS are now
recognized as fundamental to both the ‘recognition’ and the ‘mopping up’ phase
of the adaptive immune response (see Fig. 1). Macrophages and dendritic cells
act as tissue sentinels, responding to infection and tissue damage via ‘innate’
receptors (see Fig. 5) and signalling the alarm to adaptive immunity via both
antigen presentation (see Fig. 18) and the release of powerful cytokines. Once
an adaptive immune response is established, one of the main roles of antibody
is to promote and amplify phagocytosis,
while T lymphocytes
serve to activate
macrophage microbicidal
activity (see Figs 21 and 37).
Endothelial cell The inner lining of blood vessels, able to take up dyes, etc. but not truly phagocytic.
Endothelial cells direct the passage of leucocytes from blood into tissues, and
can both produce and respond to cytokines rather as macrophages do. They can
also present antigen directly to T cells under some circumstances.
Reticular cell The main supporting or ‘stromal’ cell of
lymphoid organs, usually associated with the collagen-like reticulin fibres,
and not easily distinguished from fibroblasts or from other branching or
‘dendritic’ cells (see below) – whence a great deal of confusion.
Mesangium Mesangial cells are specialized macrophages
found in the kidney, where they phagocytose material deposited in it, particularly
complexes of antigen and antibody (see Fig. 36).
Osteoclast A large multinucleate macrophage responsible
for resorbing and so shaping bone and cartilage. It is regulated by cytokines
such as TNF-α and IL-1, and is thought to have a role in degenerative diseases
of joints such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Dendritic cells The weakly phagocytic Langerhans’ cell of
the epidermis, and somewhat similar cells in other tissues migrate through
the lymphatic vessels (where they are known as ‘veiled’ cells) or blood to
lymph nodes and spleen, where they are the main agents of T-cell stimulation; T
cells recognize foreign antigens in association with cell-surface antigens
coded for by the MHC, a genetic region inti- mately involved in immune
responses of all kinds (see Figs 11, 12 and 18). The precursor of the dendritic
cell comes from the bone marrow (see Fig. 4) but its precise lineage remains
controversial. There are separate follicular dendritic cells for presenting
antigen to B cells that specialize in trapping antigen–antibody complexes. They
are found in the B-cell areas of lymphoid tissue (see Figs 17 and 19), but are
one of the very few cells of the immune system that are not derived from bone
marrow, being of fibroblast origin.
Kupffer cells Specialized macrophages found in the liver
where they remove dying or damaged red blood cells and other material from the
circulation. They make up a major fraction of the phagocytic cells in the body.
T and B Lymphocytes are often found
in close contact with dendritic cells; this is presumably where antigen
presentation and T–B cell cooperation take place (see Figs 18 and 19).
S The totipotent bone marrow stem cell, giving rise
to all the cells found in blood (see Fig. 4).
PL Blood platelets, although primarily involved in
clotting, are able to phagocytose antigen–antibody complexes, and can also
secrete some cytokines, such as transforming growth factor β (TGF-β).
RBC Antigen–antibody complexes that have bound
complement can become attached to red blood cells via the CR1 receptor (see
Fig. 6) which then transport the complexes to the liver for removal by
macrophages. This is sometimes referred to as ‘immune adherence’.
PMN Polymorphonuclear leucocyte, the major phagocytic cell of the blood; however, not conventionally considered
as part of the MPS.
MONO Monocyte, formed in the bone marrow and
travelling via the blood to the tissues, where it matures into a macrophage. Some
monocytes patrol the surface of blood vessels, presumably to repair sites of
damage or infection.
MAC Macrophage, the resident and long-lived tissue
phagocyte (see Fig. 9). Macrophages may be either free in the tissues, or
‘fixed’ in the walls of blood sinuses, where they monitor the blood for
particles, effete red cells, etc. Macrophages in the lung alveoli (alveolar
macrophages) are responsible for keeping these vital air sacs free of
particles and microbes. Macrophages (and polymorphs) have the valuable ability
to recognize not only foreign matter, but also antibody and/or complement bound
to it, which greatly enhances phagocytosis. Despite their important role in
host defence, the over-activation of macro- phages and particularly their
ability to produce high levels of reactive oxygen intermediates and the
inflammatory cytokine TNF-α, is increasingly recognized as playing an important
part in a very wide variety of chronic inflammatory conditions, including such
common diseases as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, Alzheimer’s disease and
atherosclerosis.
Antibody-mediated cellular
cytotoxicity (ADCC) Monocytes,
macrophages and granulocytes can all kill target cells by a process similar to
that of CD8 cytotoxic T cells (see Fig. 21) but it is mediated by an
antibody-mediated interaction (ADCC).
Sinus Tortuous channels in liver, spleen, etc.
through which blood passes to reach the veins, allowing the lining macrophages
to remove damaged or antibody-coated cells and other particles. This process is
so effective that a large injection of, for example, carbon particles can be
removed from the blood within minutes, leaving the liver and spleen visibly
black.
Microglia The phagocytic cells of the brain, implicated
in tissue injury leading to Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis. Unlike
other tissue macrophages, microglia may be derived from a special precursor
cell that enters the brain before birth and divides within the brain.
Lysozyme An important antibacterial enzyme secreted into
the blood by macrophages. Macrophages also produce other ‘innate’ humoral
factors such as interferon and many complement components, cytotoxic factors,
etc.
Giant cell; epithelioid cell Macrophage-derived cells typically found at
sites of chronic inflammation; by coalescing into a solid mass, or granuloma,
they localize and wall off irritant or indigestible materials (see Fig. 37).
However, granulomas also have a major role in disease (e.g.
in tuberculosis) by
obstructing airways and
causing internal bleeding.
